SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND THE SUPERGRAVITON
The link strengthens as more superconductors are
discovered
Copyright, Harold Aspden, 2000
Earlier in these web
pages I have pointed to the connecting link between the supergraviton and the
phenomenon of superconductivity. See WARM
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY. The link is a mass quantity that is approximately 102
atomic mass units.
Matter comprises atoms and molecules which share a
quantum jitter motion having the high frequency of a photon, the energy of which
is equal to the rest-mass energy of the electron. That cyclic motion would mean
that matter is dynamically out-of-balance were it not for the juxtaposed motion
of a counterbalancing system of gravitons induced as part of the zero-point
field system hidden in the fabric of space. One can calculate G, the Constant of
Gravitation, in terms of the electron by developing the appropriate quantum
relationships based on gravitons and their interaction according to
electrodynamic force law. This is of record elsewhere in these web pages. See THE
THEORY OF GRAVITATION.
With the advance of this theory over the
years, it became evident that heavy molecules induce a complex form of graviton
as a cluster of graviton components which overall is capable of providing
dynamic balance for a mass slightly greater than 102 atomic mass units, this
being what is here termed the 'supergraviton'.
The first experimental
evidence which was seen to point to this particular quantum mass unit came with
the discovery of several warm superconductor materials having the perovskite
molecular structure. The molecules individually or collectively as a small group
had mass which was an integer multiple of a common quantity, the supergraviton
mass, a mass derived theoretically according to this author's theory of
gravitation.
The relevance to superconductivity arises because the
dynamic balance involved in the action of gravity allows a molecule to absorb
impact by an electron or shed an electron without dissipating energy in
molecular vibrations. There is a magnetic inductance process involved by which
collisions between free conduction electrons and those molecules can sustain a
flow of electrical current by, as it were, cooling the molecule, and storing the
energy as inductance energy during the collision whilst deploying the heat
released to meet any accompanying spurious loss owing to that dynamic balance
not being absolutely perfect.
This, in summary, is the background to this
author's argument that warm superconductivity and quantum gravitational theory
are linked to the existence of a mass quantum that is slightly greater than 102
atomic mass units.
As the above theory developed, it was noted by chance
that the molecular composition or alloy compositions of certain permanent magnet
materials seemed to point also to the dynamic link with the supergraviton. Could
it be that the property of permanent magnetism arises owing to a sustained
circulating current flow in the body of the magnet? The numerical evidence was
strong. (NOTE: Here, I hoped to include a reference to another page of
this web site where I have already discussed this theme, but I cannot find it
and even wonder if it was erased unintentionally. I will rectify this situation
as soon as I can.) The problem, however, was that this implied the existence of
room temperature superconductivity in those permanent magnet materials that do
exhibit very high coercive force. The problem is also compounded by the general
recognition that a strong magnetic field cannot penetrate within a
superconductor.
This brings us to the essential and new contribution of
this Essay.
First, I note that long before I had heard of 'high
temperature superconductors' (they were only discovered in the latter part of
the 1980s) I had expressed my views on why certain substances are ferromagnetic.
My account was published in 1969 in my book Physics without Einstein. It
was based on my experimental Ph.D. research studying the effects of mechanical
stress on the anomalous eddy-current losses found in iron and in nickel.
Essentially, I reasoned that magnetic inductance energy can be stored in the
vacuum, a factor which told me that there has to be something in that vacuum
that reacts and becomes itself polarized by the presence of a magnetic field.
Now do keep in mind here that advanced physics texts dealing with magnetic field
energy need to take account of the fact that magnetic field energy has a
negative potential. A magnetic state involves negative potential and iron
is ferromagnetic below its Curie temperature simply because the magnetic field
produced by the collective action of certain of its atomic electrons has a
negative magnetic potential that is not outweighed by the accompanying
mechanical strain energy set up by electrodynamic interaction forces acting
between those particular electrons.
The modulus of elasticity, whether for
iron, nickel or cobalt, is quite high, meaning that the powerful stresses that
accompany the ferromagnetic state involve less strain and so less strain energy,
energy which is at a positive potential. Energy deploys in a physical system in
seeking a minimum potential state. It so happens that, for iron, nickel and
cobalt, this is the ferromagnetic state, as I show in my book Physics without
Einstein.
Now, as to superconductivity, I did not wake up to the link
with the supergraviton until many years on from that 1969 book, though gravitons
do feature in that book because it describes a unified theory linking gravity
and electromagnetism. The supergraviton comes into being only in the presence of
heavy molecules and it is the interplay of such molecules with electrons, as
they carry a current flow, that brings us into the realm of superconductivity.
In that 1969 book I did explain why electrons can avoid shedding energy by
radiation as they progress through a conductive material and even pointed to the
fact that it was anomalous that uranium 235 changes from superconductive to the
normal conductive state at a lower temperature than does uranium 238. That is
discussed on p. 16 of the book. However, at the time, the "102" test mentioned
above was something that was 20 years ahead along the path of discovery. Yet,
when I did discover the supergraviton mass and saw how it related to energy
transfer in the electrical conduction process, I remembered what I had said
about uranium. Three atoms of uranium 238 share a mass of 714 atomic mass units
and, note it well, 714 is 7 times 102! That is why the heavier isotope of
uranium is a superconductor to a higher temperature.
So, with that
digression referring to the theory of ferromagnetism and superconductivity, we
come to the discovery reported in the October, 2000 issue of Physics
World. A report on pp. 24-25 is entitled: Ferromagnetic superconductor
revealed. The report concerns the account by S. Saxena et al 2000
Nature 406 587 describing findings from collaboration between
three universities. Quoting from the report:
"The group has discovered the first material where metallic
ferromagnetism and superconductivity co-exist. Under high pressure, uranium
germanium (UGe2) loses its electrical resistance without expelling
the internal magnetic field. The million dollar question is why did it take so
long for these phases to get together?"
Well, from my point of
view, I had to be interested (a) in wondering how this particular molecular
composition fitted with my theory of the ferromagnetic state, as outlined above,
and (b) whether my "102" test would rise to the occasion.
So, judge for
yourself. As you will have seen above, it required a grouping of 3 uranium 238
atoms to form a mass resonance that could engage 7 supergravitons in dynamic
balance to thereby avoid too much energy dissipation. Take one atom of uranium,
which data sources say has an atomic mass of 238.14, and two atoms of germanium,
which data sources say has an atomic mass of 72.60, and so find that the
composite molecular form has a mass of 383.34 a.m.u. Then ask if a small
grouping of just a few such molecular forms can point to that "102" resonant
state. You will discover that 4 such molecular forms have an aggregate mass of
1533.36, which is 15 times 102.224.
So, I am still seeing here support
for my "102" supergraviton theory and, admittedly, I had also to see how my
theory of the ferromagnetic state could apply to this uranium germanium
material. Happily it can and I here put on record, by way of an Appendix to this
account, a brief note that covers the point, though it is little more than an
personal aide memoir which needs clarification by reference to the chapter on
ferromagnetism in my book Physics without Einstein.
The above item
in the October, 2000 issue of Physics World has now been followed by a
report at pp. 25-26 of the November, 2000 issue of this same periodical
concerning the discovery of the "first non-cuprate material that superconducts
above liquid-nitrogen temperatures (Y Levi et al 2000Europhys.
Lett. 51 564."
The material involved is sodium-doped tungsten
trioxide. It is stated that the tungsten atoms are surrounded by six oxygen
atoms in a perovskite structure having the composition
NaxWO3, which is an insulator for x=0, but becomes an
n-type semiconductor with x increasing to 0.3, but thereafter it becomes a
metal.
So, I was tempted to perform my "102" test, seeing here a
composition in which layers of molecules comprising composite molecular units of
the formula Na2W2O6 are formed in a material
which otherwise contains tungsten trioxide without the same concentration of
sodium atoms. The net atomic weight of this composite molecular form, given that
Na, W and O atoms account for 23, 184 and 16 units, respectively, is then seen
to be 510. This is exactly 5 times that quantum supergraviton mass unit
102!
So, once again, we see scientific discovery pointing the finger at
the dynamic mass resonance involving the supergraviton.
However, what I
have had to say on this "102" mass resonance theme is simply ignored, because
scientists want to believe otherwise and so they soldier on looking for clues to
help their search for higher temperature superconductive materials. As this
Physics World article describes the path ahead:
"Historically, there are three approaches to such a quest. The
reasoned approach works from a raft of theoretical insights to narrow down
possibilities and hopefully predict a candidate. The trial-and-error approach
resorts to sheer effort to eventually stumble on a candidate. Then there is
serendipity - the fortuitous happenstance of unexpected discovery. History
tells us that serendipity is nature's favoured route. The ideal approach,
perhaps, is to attempt to bring all three to bear on a
problem."
So, whoever may read this, if already embarked on the
quest of discovery by stumbling on the ultimate room temperature superconductor,
should pay attention and factor the "102" mass resonance into the
'trial-and-error' choice of molecular compositions warranting
investigation.
APPENDIX
The ferromagnetic state of iron arises from
the contribution of two electrons in each iron atom which have energy states
close enough to cause them to lock into a synchronized orbital motion by sharing
energy via their mutual interaction. These electrons are 3d state electrons,
meaning that they belong to the n=3 shell of the quantized system of motion well
known in physics. The 3d state electrons have an orbital motion that corresponds
to the n=2 level of the earlier Bohr theory of the atom.
The frequency of
this orbital motion is, in Bohr theory, proportional to
Z2/n3, where Z is the atomic number of the
atom.
Now, confronting the question of how a composition of uranium and
germanium could possibly be ferromagnetic, there are two considerations.
Firstly, we need to see scope for frequency synchronization of d state electrons
in both uranium and germanium, albeit of different energy levels. Secondly,
there is need for the resulting electrodynamic interaction forces between those
electrons, as moderated by electrostatic interaction, to produce resulting
mechanical stress that lies within elastic yield limits of the material, with
the negative potential energy density of the resulting magnetic field being of
greater magnitude than the associated mechanical stress energy
density.
The second of these considerations would need extensive analysis
and require data concerning the perovskite composition, which this author does
not have, including data concerning the modulus of elasticity of the material.
However, the first of these considerations can be tested.
If we regard
the synchronous interaction as being between 3d state electrons in germanium and
5d state electrons in uranium, the relevant n values for orbital quantization
according to Bohr theory are 2 and 4, respectively. Now, for synchronized
interaction to occur, this means that the corresponding Z2 ratio has
to be the inverse of the n3 ratio.
Since Z for uranium is 92
and Z for germanium is 32, it is then of interest to calculate the ratio of
(92)2 to (32)2 to see how close this is to
(2)3.
You may then verify that the ratio is actually
(2.02)3, which seems close enough to make a convergence to the
synchronized state seem possible. This is therefore an encouraging result which
does seem to offer support for my theory of the ferromagnetic state, but all the
more so given the interrelated support from the superconductive aspect discussed
above.
********
Readers interested in this subject have more to
learn in the next Essay: NOTE
ON SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
********H. Aspden
November 4 2000
